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Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 286: R233-R249, 2004; doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00338.2003
0363-6119/04 $5.00
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INVITED REVIEW

Gender, sex hormones, and vascular tone

Julia M. Orshal and Raouf A. Khalil

Research and Development, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, West Roxbury; and Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02132

The greater incidence of hypertension and coronary artery disease in men and postmenopausal women compared with premenopausal women has been related, in part, to gender differences in vascular tone and possible vascular protective effects of the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone. However, vascular effects of the male sex hormone testosterone have also been suggested. Estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone receptors have been identified in blood vessels of human and other mammals and have been localized in the plasmalemma, cytosol, and nuclear compartments of various vascular cells, including the endothelium and the smooth muscle. The interaction of sex hormones with cytosolic/nuclear receptors triggers long-term genomic effects that could stimulate endothelial cell growth while inhibiting smooth muscle proliferation. Activation of plasmalemmal sex hormone receptors may trigger acute nongenomic responses that could stimulate endothelium-dependent mechanisms of vascular relaxation such as the nitric oxide-cGMP, prostacyclin-cAMP, and hyperpolarization pathways. Additional endothelium-independent effects of sex hormones may involve inhibition of the signaling mechanisms of vascular smooth muscle contraction such as intracellular Ca2+ concentration and protein kinase C. The sex hormone-induced stimulation of the endothelium-dependent mechanisms of vascular relaxation and inhibition of the mechanisms of vascular smooth muscle contraction may contribute to the gender differences in vascular tone and may represent potential beneficial vascular effects of hormone replacement therapy during natural and surgically induced deficiencies of gonadal hormones.

estrogen; progesterone; testosterone; endothelium; nitric oxide; vascular smooth muscle; calcium


Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: R. A. Khalil, Harvard Medical School, VA Boston Healthcare-Research, 1400 VFW Parkway 3/2B123, Boston, MA 02132 (E-mail: raouf_khalil{at}hms.harvard.edu).




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