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Departments of 1 Molecular Physiology and Biophysics and 2 Pharmacology, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont 05405
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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This study examines the roles of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels (VDCC), ryanodine receptors (RyRs), large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) channels, and small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SK) channels in the regulation of phasic contractions of guinea pig urinary bladder smooth muscle (UBSM). Nisoldipine (100 nM), a dihydropyridine inhibitor of VDCC, abolished spontaneous UBSM contractions. Ryanodine (10 µM) increased contraction frequency and thereby integrated force and, in the presence of the SK blocker apamin, had a greater effect on integrated force than ryanodine alone. Blocking BK (iberiotoxin, 100 nM) or SK (apamin, 100 nM) channels increased contraction amplitude and duration but decreased frequency. The contractile response to iberiotoxin was more pronounced than to apamin. The increases in contraction amplitude and duration to apamin were substantially augmented with ryanodine pretreatment. These results indicate that BK and SK channels have prominent roles as negative feedback elements to limit UBSM contraction amplitude and duration. RyRs also appear to play a significant role as a negative feedback regulator of contraction frequency and duration, and this role is influenced by the activity of SK channels.
guinea pig; incontinence; calcium channel; iberiotoxin; apamin; sarcoplasmic reticulum
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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THE URINARY BLADDER has two important functions: the storage and micturition of urine. These tasks involve a complex integration of signals from sensory systems located in the bladder wall, as well as autonomic reflexes, voluntary regulation of efferent pathways to bladder, and changes in the contractile state of the smooth muscle that makes up the wall of the urinary bladder (for review, see Refs. 2, 5). To understand urinary bladder smooth muscle (UBSM) function, we sought to elucidate fundamental mechanisms underlying excitation-contraction (E-C) coupling in this tissue.
UBSM exhibits spontaneous action potentials (2, 9). This activity appears to be related to the phasic nature of spontaneous contractions in this tissue. Phasic contractions of UBSM depend on Ca2+ entry through dihydropyridine-sensitive, voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels (VDCC) (2). Ca2+ entry through VDCC is elevated by the depolarization that occurs during each action potential. Indeed, the upstroke of the action potential is caused by Ca2+ entry through VDCC (9). These action potentials are ~20 ms in duration and occur in bursts (9). Two types of Ca2+-activated K+ (KCa) channels are involved in the restoration of resting membrane potential after a spike. The repolarization of the action potential depends in part on activation of iberiotoxin-sensitive, large-conductance KCa (BK) channels, and the afterhyperpolarization is caused by activation of apamin-sensitive, small-conductance KCa (SK) channels. In UBSM, a phasic contraction, which lasts from 3 to 10 s, presumably reflects an elevation of Ca2+ entry through VDCC caused by a burst of action potentials.
The amplitude of a phasic contraction should depend on the increase in Ca2+ entry caused by membrane depolarization, as well as Ca2+ released through ryanodine receptors (RyRs) in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) that is induced by Ca2+ entry [Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release (CICR)]. The duration of phasic contractions should depend on the duration of the bursts of action potentials. The frequency of phasic contractions should reflect mechanisms that temporarily cause action potentials to cease. Because the action potentials depend on Ca2+ entry, accumulated inactivation of VDCC or deactivation of VDCC by membrane hyperpolarization would lead to a cessation of action potentials and thereby determine the onset and length of the interval between contractions.
Despite the importance of spontaneous phasic contractions to urinary bladder function, little is known about the interactions among major components of E-C coupling in this tissue. UBSM action potentials and phasic contractions clearly depend on Ca2+ entry through VDCC. The contribution of CICR through RyRs to the phasic contractions, however, is not known, although single cell work suggests a significant contribution of this mechanism (see Ref. 8). In tonic arterial smooth muscle, Ca2+ release through RyRs regulates BK channels, acting as a negative feedback element to decrease Ca2+ entry (14, 18). The roles of SK and BK channels in the regulation of phasic contractions are unresolved.
The goal of the present study was to determine the roles of RyRs, BK channels, and SK channels in the regulation of phasic contractions of UBSM. Our results indicate that RyRs in UBSM, unlike cardiac muscle, do not elevate contractility through Ca2+ release. In fact, RyRs appear to reduce overall force production by decreasing the frequency of phasic contractions. BK and SK channels regulate the frequency, amplitude, and duration of the phasic contractions. Our results suggest important indirect interactions among RyRs and BK and SK channels to regulate UBSM phasic contractions.
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METHODS |
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TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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General. All procedures were reviewed and approved by the Office of Animal Care Management at the University of Vermont. Guinea pigs (250-350 g) were euthanized by halothane overdose followed by exsanguination. The urinary bladder was removed and placed in ice-cold physiological saline solution (PSS; see Solutions for composition). After this rinse in PSS, the bladder was pinned to the bottom of a Sylgard-coated Petri dish containing nominally Ca2+-free dissection solution (see below). After the surrounding adipose and connective tissues were removed, the bladder was cut open with a longitudinal incision beginning from the urethral orifice. The mucosal surface of the bladder was washed repeatedly with dissection solution until remaining traces of urine were removed. The bladder was pinned serosal side up for dissection. Individual bundles of detrusor muscle (100- to 300-µm wide) were cut free from the bladder wall and transferred to a small Petri dish containing dissection solution. Miniature aluminum clips were placed at each end of the muscle strip to allow mounting of the strip in a tissue bath. Individual strips were placed in water-jacketed tissue baths (2 ml volume) maintained at 37°C. One end of the strip was attached to a stationary metal hook while the other end was connected to a force-displacement transducer (model BG-10G; Kulite Semiconductor Products) for measuring isometric contractility. Urinary bladder strips were equilibrated at a resting load of ~1 mN in PSS with periodic changes of bathing fluid. Spontaneous rhythmic contractions were generally observed within 20-30 min of equilibration and were maintained for the remainder of the experiment. After 45 min of equilibration, 60 mM KCl was added to the bathing medium to elicit a contractile response. Only strips exhibiting reproducible contractile responses to two to three successive applications of 60 mM KCl were studied.
Field stimulation. To rule out the possibility that responses examined in this study were due to changes in the activity of nerves contained in the bladder strips, all experiments were conducted in the presence of a cocktail containing tetrodotoxin, as well as receptor antagonists for neurotransmitters in the bladder (Ref. 6; see Solutions for composition). To verify that this cocktail was effective at inhibiting neurally mediated responses, some strips were subjected to electric field stimulation to trigger nerve activity and elicit UBSM contraction in the presence and absence of the cocktail. For these experiments, UBSM strips were mounted in a modified organ chamber equipped with silver stimulating electrodes. To elicit neurally mediated contractions, strips were stimulated for 2 s, using a 0.3-ms pulse of 20-40 V at 20 Hz (model S-88, Grass Instruments). Responses from three successive stimulations were averaged for each strip, before and after exposure to the cocktail.
Solutions.
PSS was made daily and contained (in mM) 119 NaCl, 4.7 KCl, 24 NaHCO3, 1.2 KH2PO4, 2.5 CaCl2, 1.2 MgSO4, 0.023 ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and 11 glucose and was aerated with 95% O2-5% CO2 to
obtain pH 7.4. Dissection solution contained (in mM) 80 monosodium
glutamate, 55 NaCl, 6 KCl, 10 glucose, 10 N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N'-2-ethanesulfonic acid, 2 MgCl2, pH adjusted to 7.3 with NaOH. Iberiotoxin
and apamin (both from Sigma) were prepared as stock solutions in
distilled water. Ryanodine (L. C. Laboratories) was prepared in
dimethyl sulfoxide. The cocktail containing neurotransmitter
antagonists was prepared directly in PSS and contained (in µM) 1 atropine, 1 phentolamine, 1 propranolol, 1 tetrodotoxin, and either 10 suramin or 1 
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-methylene ATP (all from Sigma). Nisoldipine was
prepared in ethanol.
Calculations and statistics. Summary data are presented as means ± SE from n separate preparations. Force integral is calculated by integrating the area under the force-time curve for a period of 5 min. Contractile frequencies, amplitudes, and force integrals are expressed relative to control (absence of pharmacological intervention) values. In all protocols, test agents were applied for 15 min, with the last 5 min taken as the analysis period. Control data were obtained in the 5 min preceding the first test compound. Differences were assessed by t-test or one-way analysis of variance, where appropriate, and the null hypothesis was rejected for all P < 0.05. The Student-Newman-Keuls method was used for all pairwise multiple comparisons.
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RESULTS |
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TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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Myogenic nature of spontaneous contractions in UBSM.
Smooth muscle from the urinary bladder is known to exhibit spontaneous
electrical excitability in the form of action potentials (2, 9), resulting in rhythmic contractile
activity. We sought to investigate the role of ryanodine-sensitive
Ca2+ release and BK and SK channels in modulating
spontaneous contractions of guinea pig UBSM. Baseline contractile
variables for all muscle strips used in this study are summarized in
Table 1. To verify that spontaneous
contractility in this preparation is not caused by neurotransmitters
released from autonomic nerves contained in the bladder strips,
experiments were performed in the presence of a cocktail containing
blockers for known transmitter receptors in the bladder wall (atropine,
muscarinic antagonist; phentolamine, -adrenergic antagonist;
propranolol, -adrenergic antagonist; suramin or ,-methylene
ATP, purinergic antagonist; tetrodotoxin, neuronal Na+
channel blocker). Spontaneous contractions of UBSM persisted in the
presence of the drug cocktail, suggesting a myogenic basis for these
contractions (Fig. 1A). The
drug cocktail did affect contractile activity. Contraction frequency
decreased (from 4.8 ± 2.1 to 1.6 ± 0.3 contractions/min;
Fig. 1D), whereas contraction amplitude increased (from
0.44 ± 0.03 to 0.81 ± 0.19 mN; Fig. 1E) in
response to the drug cocktail. Overall, the average force integral was
significantly increased in the presence of the cocktail (from 21.7 ± 7.0 to 36.0 ± 13.5 mN/s; Fig. 1F).
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Phasic contractions require Ca2+ entry through VDCC. To examine the role of Ca2+ influx through VDCC in mediating UBSM contractions, the dihydropyridine inhibitor of VDCC, nisoldipine (0.1-1.0 µM), was administered to spontaneously contracting strips. Nisoldipine inhibited contractile activity (Fig. 1C; n = 5). In five strips studied, the average time for complete inhibition of contractions by nisoldipine was 2.2 ± 0.5 min. This finding indicates that Ca2+ influx through VDCC is essential for spontaneous contractile events.
RyRs modulate the frequency of phasic contractions.
Ca2+ release from RyRs on the SR is thought to be involved
in E-C coupling in UBSM (7, 8,
11, 12). We hypothesized that
Ca2+ release from RyRs (CICR) contributes a portion of the
Ca2+ stimulus required for cell contraction, resulting in
an increase in amplitude of UBSM contractions. To examine the
functional role for SR Ca2+ release via RyRs, we treated
contracting UBSM strips with ryanodine (10 µM) to inhibit RyRs (Fig.
2). This concentration of ryanodine was
confirmed to inhibit RyR-mediated Ca2+ release
(Ca2+ sparks) and their associated spontaneous transient
outward currents in guinea pig UBSM cells (10; see also Refs. 8, 13,
18, 20). The effects of ryanodine were assessed 10-15 min after application to ensure a steady-state effect. Application of ryanodine (10 µM) resulted in an increase in contraction frequency from 2.9 ± 0.4 to 4.8 ± 1.2 contractions/min (Fig.
2B), but no significant change in contraction amplitude
(0.97 ± 0.13 vs. 1.07 ± 0.25 mN; Fig. 2C). The
contraction duration was also unaffected by ryanodine (8.9 ± 0.4 vs. 9.8 ± 0.5 s; P = 0.16). Therefore,
contrary to the expectation that ryanodine would reduce force by 70%
(see Ref. 12), ryanodine actually increased integrated force (from 37.3 ± 4.0 to 65.6 ± 13.4 mN/s; Fig. 2D),
reflecting the increase in contraction frequency. These results suggest
that RyR-mediated Ca2+ release acts to decrease, and not
increase, overall contractility. Possible mechanisms by which
RyR-mediated Ca2+ release could decrease contractility are
through activation of BK and SK channels.
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Inhibition of BK or SK channels increases the amplitude
and duration, but decreases the frequency, of UBSM contractions.
The role of BK channels in UBSM contractility was tested by applying
the potent and selective BK channel blocker iberiotoxin (100 nM, ~100
times inhibition constant, see Refs. 6a and 19). Blocking BK channels
dramatically increased contraction amplitude (from 0.32 ± 0.06 to
1.27 ± 0.45 mN; Fig.
3C), duration (from 6.2 ± 0.8 to 16.1 ± 5.6 s; Fig. 3D), and integrated
force (from 12.6 ± 4.2 to 57.3 ± 22.7 mN/s). The amplitude
of the phasic contractions in the presence of iberiotoxin was
comparable to the force produced in response to 60 mM extracellular
K+ concentration ([K+]o)
(0.80 ± 0.13 mN, n = 7). Iberiotoxin also
decreased contraction frequency by 53% from 4.4 ± 1.3 to
2.0 ± 0.5 contractions/min (Fig. 3B). The reduction of
contraction frequency to iberiotoxin appeared to require functional
RyRs, because iberiotoxin (100 nM) did not reduce contraction
frequency in the presence of 10 µM ryanodine (3.7 ± 0.4 in
ryanodine vs. 5.3 ± 1.5 contractions/min in ryanodine and
iberiotoxin; n = 6). These observations indicate that
BK channels play a profound role in the regulation of UBSM contractility.
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Blocking SK channels unmasks a role for RyRs in modulating contraction duration. Ryanodine (10 µM) by itself did not cause a steady-state effect on contraction amplitude or duration (Fig. 2). However, in the presence of apamin, ryanodine increased contraction duration (from 12.8 ± 1.5 to 21.3 ± 5.9 s; Fig. 4D) and the apamin-induced increase in contraction amplitude persisted (Fig. 4C). The net effect of ryanodine, in the presence of apamin, led to a 3.2-fold increase in integrated force (from 28.8 ± 4.6 to 92.9 ± 27.1 mN/s), compared with 1.8-fold increase in the absence of apamin (see Fig. 2).
SK channel modulation of contraction amplitude and duration is
enhanced by RyR inhibition.
Apamin alone increased contraction amplitude, duration, and integrated
force (Fig. 4). Because blocking SK channels unmasked a role for RyRs
in regulating UBSM contraction duration (above), the effect of blocking
SK channels in the presence of ryanodine was examined (Fig.
5). The presence of ryanodine did not
alter the basic responses to apamin: an increase in amplitude,
duration, and integrated force. However, the increases in both
contraction amplitude and duration to apamin were significantly greater
in the presence of ryanodine than in the absence (compare Fig. 4, C and D, to Fig. 5, C and
D). Apamin alone caused a 1.8 ± 0.2-fold increase in
contraction amplitude, whereas in the presence of ryanodine (which did
not affect amplitude), apamin increased amplitude by 2.7 ± 0.2-fold (P = 0.02). The apamin-induced change in
contraction duration increased from 1.4 ± 0.1-fold over control
to 4.3 ± 2.1-fold over control in the absence and presence of
ryanodine, respectively (P = 0.01). Furthermore, the
increase in integrated force elicited by apamin in the presence of RyR
inhibition was substantially greater than that caused by apamin alone
(4.0 ± 1.1- vs. 1.5 ± 0.2-fold, P = 0.01).
The striking augmentation of apamin-induced changes in UBSM
contractility by ryanodine can be seen in Fig. 5E. This
figure illustrates original recordings of contractions from two
separate UBSM strips (strips A and B). A single
contraction (representing the average) from each strip is shown under
control conditions (No Drug) to show that basal contractility was
similar between the two strips. Finally, a single contraction from each strip is shown after apamin treatment, either in the presence or
absence of ryanodine. Note that ryanodine pretreatment substantially augmented the increase in contraction amplitude and duration induced by
apamin. This finding suggests that Ca2+ release through
RyRs acts to dampen the effects of SK channel inhibition.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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In this study, we explored the roles of VDCC, RyRs, and BK and SK
channels in the regulation of phasic contractions of UBSM. Phasic
contractions of UBSM depend on Ca2+ entry through
dihydropyridine-sensitive VDCC (Fig. 1; see Ref. 2). Ca2+
entry is activated during action potentials, with the upstroke of the
action potential also depending on Ca2+ currents through
VDCC (2, 9). Because action potentials are
brief (20 ms) with respect to phasic contractions (3-10 s), a
phasic contraction presumably reflects a burst of action potentials. Our results indicate that RyRs, BK channels, and SK channels all play
important roles, as negative feedback elements, to regulate urinary
bladder contractility (Fig. 6).
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Inhibition of RyRs does not decrease the amplitude of the phasic contractions: no evidence for "classical" CICR. In cardiac muscle, RyRs are activated by Ca2+ entry during the action potential to cause massive Ca2+ release (CICR) that contributes the majority of the Ca2+ (90%) during the Ca2+ transient (4). Evidence for a similar mechanism in UBSM has come from experiments on voltage-clamped isolated smooth muscle cells from urinary bladder. The incremental rise in intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) during depolarization of UBSM is greater than would be expected if VDCC were the only source of Ca2+ (12). Thus it has been suggested that the Ca2+ influx through VDCC is amplified by Ca2+ released from RyRs in the SR via CICR (8, 12). Indeed, voltage-activated Ca2+ currents evoked Ca2+ transients that were reduced by ~70% by ryanodine (8), suggesting that substantial Ca2+ for the transient was derived from RyR-mediated Ca2+ release. However, there are notable differences between CICR in cardiac myocytes and in UBSM. CICR in cardiac myocytes is very rapid (<5 ms; see Ref. 4) because of the close apposition of VDCC and RyRs. In sharp contrast, CICR in isolated urinary bladder myocytes develops over hundreds of milliseconds, arguing against a close proximity of VDCC and RyRs in this preparation. On the basis of these measurements, "cardiac muscle-like" CICR in urinary bladder is arguably too slow to be activated by normally occurring action potentials, which have a duration of 20 ms. Ca2+ entry through VDCC during the action potential of UBSM could activate RyRs through an elevation of cytoplasmic Ca2+ and SR Ca2+ load.
In cardiac and skeletal muscle, the major role of RyRs is to deliver Ca2+ for contraction. In UBSM, our results indicate that the major role of RyRs is to decrease contraction. RyR-mediated Ca2+ release could decrease excitability through activation of K+ channels or inhibition of inward currents such as the VDCC. Ca2+-mediated inactivation of VDCC would not only decrease excitability, but would also directly decrease Ca2+ entry and, thus, contractility. Our results suggest that the direct contribution of RyR-mediated Ca2+ release to average cytosolic Ca2+ concentration via "cardiac-like CICR" is small compared with its ability to decrease excitability (Fig. 6). Our approach precludes a direct estimate of the RyR-mediated Ca2+ release. However, our results suggest that RyR-mediated Ca2+ release in UBSM is under dynamic control from a number of negative feedback loops (Fig. 6). An approach to assessing the amount of RyR-mediated Ca2+ release would be to measure [Ca2+]i in voltage-clamped myocytes subjected to simulated action potentials. The effect of this [Ca2+]i on VDCC inactivation would also have to be evaluated.Role of RyRs in the regulation of phasic contractions. RyR-mediated Ca2+ release acts to limit UBSM contraction frequency. Thus blocking RyRs increases contraction frequency (Fig. 2). An increase in contraction frequency to blocking RyRs could reflect an elevation of excitability, resulting from either less hyperpolarization or less inactivation of VDCC during the quiescent phase between action potential bursts. Obvious targets of RyR-mediated Ca2+ release that would decrease excitability and, thereby, decrease contraction frequency are SK and BK channels. In the presence of the BK channel blocker iberiotoxin, ryanodine still increased contraction frequency (Fig. 3). In the presence of the SK channel blocker apamin, contraction frequency decreased (Fig. 4) and remained decreased after ryanodine (Fig. 4). These results point to a role of SK channels in ryanodine-induced increase in contraction frequency.
The negative feedback regulation of contractility by RyRs is readily apparent in the presence of apamin (Figs. 4 and 5). Ryanodine-induced elevation of contraction duration in the presence of apamin is consistent with the idea that RyRs play a major role as a negative feedback element to limit contractility (Fig. 6). It is conceivable that in the presence of apamin, RyR-mediated Ca2+ release regulates UBSM contractility through activation of BK channels. This possibility is difficult to test, because the combined treatment of apamin and iberiotoxin led to large chaotic contractions, precluding any interpretation of the effect of ryanodine in the presence of iberiotoxin and apamin. The interplay of RyRs with BK channels is more difficult to interpret at the level of contractions. Iberiotoxin-induced contractions were comparable in amplitude to those observed in high potassium. Therefore, it is unlikely that the addition of ryanodine or apamin could increase contraction amplitude in the presence of iberiotoxin. Iberiotoxin increased amplitudes and durations in the presence of ryanodine, suggesting that BK channels can be activated in the absence of RyR-mediated Ca2+ release. During the action potential, the membrane depolarization and subsequent elevation of [Ca2+]i are apparently sufficient to cause a significant activation of BK channels. The present study does not directly address the role of local RyR-mediated Ca2+ release (Ca2+ sparks) in the activation of BK channels, which does occur in this preparation (10). This element may also be involved in the negative feedback regulation of excitability by RyRs (Fig. 6).BK channels play a profound role in the regulation of UBSM contractility. Blocking BK channels caused a pronounced increase in the amplitude and duration of the phasic contractions. This response was somewhat offset by a decrease in contraction frequency (Fig. 3). However, the net effect of blocking BK channels was a substantial increase in average force. The increase in contraction amplitude and duration to iberiotoxin are expected consequences of the induced increase in action potential duration, tonic membrane depolarization, and increase in action potential frequency (9). The increase in contraction amplitude and duration to iberiotoxin was not affected by ryanodine, suggesting that BK channels contribute to regulation of contractility in the absence of SR Ca2+ release through RyRs. Furthermore, the increase in contraction amplitude and duration to iberiotoxin was not affected by blocking SK channels. This result suggests that SK channel activation does not significantly compensate for BK channel inhibition (Fig. 6). Furthermore, this finding is not unexpected, because BK and SK channels regulate different phases of the action potential due to intrinsic differences in their Ca2+ and voltage dependencies. The BK channel is voltage dependent, and channel open probability increases steeply (e-fold per 10-20 mV) with membrane potential depolarization. The SK channel is not voltage dependent. The SK channel is gated by Ca2+/calmodulin and saturates at Ca2+ concentration below 1 µM (24). The BK channel is gated by Ca2+ itself and, depending on voltage, may require >10 µM Ca2+ for maximal activity.
It is possible that the decrease in contraction frequency to iberiotoxin reflects a Ca2+-dependent process, because [Ca2+]i is presumably greatly elevated during the phasic contractions in the presence of iberiotoxin. Increased [Ca2+]i during a phasic contraction would lead to greater SR Ca2+ load and presumably more Ca2+ release. The effects of ryanodine on the iberiotoxin-induced changes in contraction amplitude, duration, and frequency were examined. Ryanodine did not prevent the iberiotoxin-induced increase in amplitude or duration, but it did prevent the decrease in contraction frequency. This result suggests that RyR-mediated Ca2+ release can slow the contraction frequency, consistent with the observation that blocking RyRs can increase contraction frequency.SK channels regulate the amplitude and frequency of UBSM contractions. SK channels represent another important target for [Ca2+]i, and they may contribute to regulation of UBSM excitability. These channels have been best characterized in hippocampal neurons (16, 17, 24) where they underlie the slow afterhyperpolarization (21). Apamin-sensitive SK channels have not been extensively characterized in smooth muscle (15, 22), although there is considerable functional evidence suggesting their importance in mediating the afterhyperpolarization in UBSM (2, 6). We examined the role of apamin-sensitive SK channels in regulating UBSM contractility. Our results suggest that SK channels contribute to regulating UBSM contractility, because apamin increased contraction amplitude and force production but decreased contraction frequency. Furthermore, in the presence of ryanodine, the contractile response to apamin was substantially augmented (Fig. 5). One possible interpretation is that SK channels directly sense local Ca2+ influx through VDCC, as has been suggested for these channels in hippocampal neurons (17). Ca2+ influx through VDCC could increase in the presence of ryanodine, owing to the relief of Ca2+-dependent inactivation of VDCC (1). The increased Ca2+ influx would lead to greater activation of SK channels. This augmented contribution of SK channels to regulating contractility is unmasked when SK channels are inhibited in the presence of ryanodine.
In conclusion, the present study provides the first characterization of the effects of inhibitors of RyRs (ryanodine), BK channels (iberiotoxin), and SK channels (apamin) on phasic UBSM contractions. BK channel inhibition causes such profound increases in contraction amplitude and duration that neither elevation of SK channel activity nor RyRs could compensate. Inhibition of RyRs results in modulation of contraction frequency. However, combined SK and RyR inhibition leads to an increase in both contraction amplitude and duration. The results indicate that RyRs, BK channels, and SK channels function as negative-feedback elements through differential modulation of contractile amplitude, duration, and frequency (Fig. 6).Perspectives
Several issues of key importance stem from this work. The spontaneous nature of phasic contractions in guinea pig UBSM is a characteristic that may have substantial use in understanding human bladder function. Specifically, these phasic contractions in guinea pig detrusor resemble the spontaneous contractility that is seen in human detrusor (see Ref. 3). Furthermore, a hallmark of the unstable bladder, both human and animal models, is hyperexcitability of the smooth muscle (3). Thus understanding how electrical events are coordinated and regulated to cause contraction in guinea pig bladder should provide insights into dysregulation of E-C coupling in human bladder disease. By elucidating key ion channels that regulate UBSM contractility, such as SK channels, BK channels, VDCC, and RyRs, it is possible that new targets will be identified for the development of pharmacological agents aimed at treating bladder dysfunction. Furthermore, the nature of the spontaneous rhythmicity characteristic of the guinea pig urinary bladder has been elusive. Our results suggest that guinea pig urinary bladder smooth muscle is capable of generating phasic contractions, independent of nerve input. One possible explanation is that stretch-sensitive cation channels are responsible for generating an excitatory pacing potential that depolarizes the myocytes to the point where a VDCC-mediated action potential fires (23). A burst of action potentials, then, is associated with the phasic contraction. Consistent with this hypothesis is the observation that blocking VDCC in guinea pig UBSM abolishes the action potential spike (9) and contractions (Fig. 1), but small oscillatory depolarizations remain (9). The ionic basis for these remaining depolarizations, as well as regulation by RyRs, remains to be elucidated.| |
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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The authors thank Drs. T. Firth, D. Hill-Eubanks, J. Jaggar, and G. Petkov for helpful comments and discussions.
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FOOTNOTES |
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This work was supported by National Institute of Health Grant DK-53832 to M. T. Nelson. G. M. Herrera is a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellow.
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: G. M. Herrera, Dept. of Molecular Physiology & Biophysics, Univ. of Vermont College of Medicine Burlington, VT 05405 (E-mail: herrera{at}salus.med.uvm.edu).
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. §1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Received 26 August 1999; accepted in final form 4 January 2000.
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TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
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P < 0.05 vs. iberiotoxin alone.
. * P < 0.05 vs. control.
