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COMPLEX FUNCTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, SLEEP AND LOCOMOTION
1Department of Statistics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904; 2Department of Internal Medicine, Leiden University, Rapenburg 70, NA-2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands; and 3Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Mayo Medical School and Graduate School of Medicine, General Clinical Research Center, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
Submitted 11 April 2003 ; accepted in final form 5 May 2003
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT METHODOLOGYRESULTSDISCUSSIONDISCLOSURESREFERENCES |
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secretion; thyrotrope; hypothalamus; pulsatility
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METHODOLOGY |
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TOPABSTRACTMETHODOLOGYRESULTSDISCUSSIONDISCLOSURESREFERENCES |
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Clinical protocol. Healthy adults (N = 27) provided written voluntary, informed consent approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Leiden University Medical Center. After overnight adaptation to the inpatient study unit, subjects underwent repetitive blood sampling (2.0 ml every 10 min) for 24 h beginning at 0800. Fourteen men and thirteen women participated with respective mean ages of 46 and 41 yr (ranges: male 29-65 yr and female 32-50 yr).
Assay. TSH concentrations were quantitated in each serum sample (N = 145/24 h) in duplicate in a precise and sensitive immunofluorometric assay (Wallac Oy, Turku, Finland). The detection limit is 0.03 mU/l, the interassay coefficient of variation (CV) is 5%, and the intra-assay CV is 4.4% in the concentration (mU/l) range studied here (20).
Model of Diurnal TSH Secretion
Overall structure. The present study implements and adapts a recent Bayesian model of pulsatile neurohormone secretion, basal release, stochastic pulse times, flexible secretory-burst shape, random effects on burst mass, biexponential elimination kinetics, and combined experimental uncertainty in sample collection, processing, and assay (8, 10, 13). Reconstruction of the foregoing principal features is schematized in Fig. 1. In this analytical formalism, a priori estimates are made of pulse-onset times, T1, T2,..., Tn, by use of a previously constructed methodology (9). Then, as a second stage, analyses simultaneously quantify secretion and elimination parameters conditional on the prior set of putative pulse times (7). The present adaptation creates an additional allowance for two (independent) secretory-burst waveforms, which are demarcated over 24 h by way of a statistically identified change point (time).
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Secretion. Each pulse time, Tj, marks the onset of a secretory burst. Conceptually, a burst reflects abrupt exocytotic discharge of hormone-containing granules followed by less rapid secretion of newly synthesized molecules (9, 10). The mass of hormone secreted in any given burst is assumed to be the sum of a finite amount of minimally available stores, a linear function of hormone accumulation over the preceding interpulse interval, and stochastic variability in individual burst mass, defined algebraically as follows
 | (1) |
where Mj is the mass secreted; 
0 is basal
cellular accumulation; 1 is a linear coefficient operating
over the preceding interburst interval, Tj-Tj
- 1; and Aj is random effects
on burst mass (9,
10).
The mass contained in any given burst, Mj, is released according to an adaptable (hormone-, subject-, and condition-specific) waveform. The waveform (evolution of the instantaneous secretion rate over time) is represented algebraically via a three-parameter generalized gamma function (8). The latter probability distribution encapsulates the unit-area normalized rate of secretion (in mass units) over time (in min) per unit distribution volume (in liters) by way of
 | (2) |
The 
parameters endow adaptive asymmetry by way of variability in the
onset rate (13), peakedness
(3), and dissipation rate
(3/2) of the secretion event
(7). However, the gamma family
is quite flexible, and the symmetrical waveforms (e.g., Gaussian) that have
been used in other hormone models
(32) can be well approximated
by the three-parameter gamma family.
Pulsatile hormone release is reconstructed as the product of the mass of
hormone secreted per burst and the normalized 
function. Thus the total
secretion rate, Z, is the sum of time-invariant (basal) hormone release,
0, and pulsatile secretion
 | (3) |
Dual-waveform model of burstlike pituitary-hormone secretion. We
test the hypothesis that there is an unknown transition time (change point) in
the waveform of discrete secretory bursts. Objectively, the change point
demarcates statistically independent putative day [
(D)] and
night [(N)] waveform functions defined by corresponding
parameters 1 (D), 2
(D), and 3 (D) and 1
(N), 2 (N), and 3
(N), respectively. According to this construction, there may or may
not be a statistical requirement for representation of dual secretory-burst
waveforms. The distinction is made on statistical grounds, wherein the one-
and two-waveform model outcomes for each data set are compared via the Akaike
Information Criterion (AIC). Specifically, suppose that there are two models,
the first parameterized by p parameters and the second, a larger
model that contains the first, parameterized by p + m
parameters. The AIC criterion states that the second model is appropriate if
twice the number of additional parameters, 2m, is less than twice the
log value of the likelihood ratio test of the first to the second model. The
factor of two is important only for ease of chi-square calculations and can be
dropped in application of the criterion. Thus the measure penalizes
enhancement of the regression fit (sum of squares of residuals) achieved
solely by adding m new parameters. A lower AIC value thus favors a
given model on the basis of a principle of assumed statistical parsimony.
Biexponential kinetics of disappearance. In the present
formulation of hormone elimination, fast- and slow-rate constants primarily
capture the respective effects of advection and diffusion
(
1) and irreversible metabolic loss (2)
from the circulation (8).
Earlier we showed that at any instant in time, t, the ligand
concentration X(t), sampled at a given point in the circulation,
x, can be described by (coupled) differential equations defining the
overall elimination process in the foregoing terms
(7). The analytical solution of
this ensemble representation is given as
 | (4) |
where A is the (amplitude) proportion of rapid to total elimination,
Z(r) denotes the aggregate secretion rate (see below), and X(0) gives the
starting hormone concentration
(7,
10). The observed hormone
concentration profile, Yi, is then a discrete time
sampling of N data points predicted by the foregoing continuous
processes, as distorted by superimposed observational error,
i
 | (5) |
Stochastic burst times. Pulse times are viewed as arising by way of a stochastic process definable jointly by mean burst frequency and interburst-interval regularity (7, 11). This notion is represented by a two-parameter Weibull probability distribution. In the latter renewal process, successive pulse times, Tj, emerge statistically as the partial sums of incremental, independent, and identically distributed positive random variables, Si
 | (6) |
The classical Poisson counting process is a single-parameter renewable process
identified by the rate parameter, 
. In the Poisson model, random
variables, Si, have an exponential distribution
with a probabilistic average interval length (waiting time) of 1/.
However, the latter formulation does not accommodate possible biological
dissociation between mean event frequency and interevent variability, inasmuch
as the means ± SD of the set of interpulse-interval lengths are equal
definitionally. Thus, in the Poisson model, the CV (CV = mean/SD x 100%)
of interburst waiting times is fixed at 100%. The latter diverges from
estimated values of 15-40% for many hormones
(4,
28,
30,
31). The Weibull probability
density adds the parameter 
, which uncouples mean burst frequency from
statistical regularity of interpulse-interval lengths. In the Weibull
construct, the conditional expectation for Tk given
Tk-1 is
 | (7) |
where denotes the mean burst frequency (events observed/unit time),
is the regularity of interpulse-time delays, and s is a dummy
variable on time (8,
11). The mean, variance, and
CV of the Weibull renewal process are defined by
 | (8) |
where 
(·) is the classical mathematical Gamma function (
and lowercase parameter are unrelated). Accordingly, in the Weibull
density, the CV of interpulse (waiting) times depends only on (and not
frequency ). The Poisson process is a derivative function, wherein
= 1. In the Weibull expansion, > 1 signifies more regular
(less variable) interpulse-interval lengths.
Data presentation. Scatterplots are presented to highlight the dispersion of values in the cohort of 27 subjects. Values in the text are cited as means ± SE, with median in parentheses. D/N parameter comparisons (dual- vs. single-burst waveform models) are made by a two-tailed, paired t-statistic. P < 0.05 was used to assign statistical significance.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTMETHODOLOGYRESULTSDISCUSSIONDISCLOSURESREFERENCES |
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Figure 3 depicts observed and analytically reconstructed serial TSH concentrations (top of each diptych) and calculated TSH secretion rates (bottom of each) under a postulated dual secretory-burst model in six normal adults. In the group of 27 subjects, the statistically defined change point (see Methods) occurred at clock time 2046 (±23 min) (2052).
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Individual estimates of probabilistic TSH secretory-pulse frequency and D/N waveform-change point times are presented in Fig. 4. Daily TSH secretory burst number averaged 17.8 (±0.40) (18). The latter estimate (calculated a priori) is independent of subsequent choice of burst-waveform model (see Methods). Approximately 48% (±1.8%) (47%) of TSH pulses emerged within the 766 ± 23 (772)-min daytime interval preceding the statistically identified change point. The 24-h normalized event frequency was 15 ± 0.44 (15) (based on a daytime projection) and 18 ± 0.57 (18) (nighttime projection) (P < 0.001).
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Projected total daily TSH secretion rates (in mU · l-1
· 24 h-1) were comparable by model form;
i.e., 60 ± 7.7 (50) and 56 ± 7.0 (50) in the single- and
double-waveform constructs, respectively
(Fig. 4, bottom).
Pulsatile TSH secretion rates (summed daily pulse mass, in mU ·
l-1 · 24 h-1) were also
independent of waveform representation; i.e., 40 ± 5.8
(26) (single-burst type) and
25 ± 5.2 (14)
[two-burst type; P = not significant (NS)]. Basal secretion rates (in
mU · l-1 · 24 -1) were 21 ±
4.2 (16) (one-burst construct)
and 25 ± 5.2 (14)
(two-burst construct; P = NS), thus contributing approximately
one-third of total TSH output.
Figure 5 (mode, mean, and
SD) compares analytically estimated properties of TSH secretory bursts under
the formalism of one or two distinct waveforms. In technical terminology, the
function defines the (unit-area normalized) time evolution of
instantaneous secretion rates within any given burst (see
Fig. 1B). The
dual-waveform (2-) formulation predicts significant D/N distinctions,
namely, before and after the objective burst-shape change point (see
Methods; Fig.
5B). Table
1 summarizes quantitative contrasts in the mode, mean, and SD of
the predicted time latency (in min) to maximal secretion attained in the
normalized secretory burst. An important inference is that the modal and mean
times to peak TSH secretion are abbreviated markedly following (compared with
before) the D/N waveform boundary; i.e., respective (D - N) difference
values were 102 ± 15 (93) (modal time delay) and 112 ± 11 (107)
min (mean time delay; both P < 0.001). Comparison of the
interindividual variability (SD) of the mean time latency with maximal TSH
release revealed greater uniformity at night, i.e., difference of intersubject
SDs between day and night: -43 ± 14 (-17) min (P
< 0.001). The latter estimate signifies less between-person variability in
TSH burst shape at night than during the day. The dual-waveform
representations in Fig. 6
illustrate 1) the D/N distinction in burst-shape variability and
2) the nighttime shift toward more rapid TSH release within bursts.
Predictions of a single-burst formulation are given by way of comparison.
According to the AIC statistical penalty term (see Methods), a dual
secretory-burst model represents diurnal and nocturnal TSH release more aptly
(lower absolute AIC value) than a single-pulse construct in 21 of 27
individuals (Fig. 6,
right).
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Figure 5 (mass and
pulsatile) presents the calculated mass of TSH secreted per burst (in mU/l).
Data are shown for the interval before vs. after the objective
diurnal/nocturnal change point time in each subject. Cohort mean values are
summarized in Table 1. On the
basis of the statistical change point location inferred in the 2- model,
we made D/N comparisons in both models. The latter revealed consistent
nighttime amplification of burst mass, namely, by 1.8-fold (1 ) and
2.1-fold (2 ) (P < 0.001 vs. daytime). Pulsatile TSH
secretion (in mU · l-1 ·
interval-1) rose commensurately, i.e., by 1.7-fold
(1 burst) and 2.0-fold (2 bursts) (P < 0.001).
The regularity of the TSH pulse-renewal process (defined by analysis of the
set of waiting times between consecutive bursts) was appraised statistically
by of the Weibull renewal process (see Methods). Individual
reconstructions of probability distributions and regularity () of
interpulse-interval lengths are shown in
Fig. 7, and cohort mean values
are given in Table 1.
Statistical appraisal demonstrated stable interpulse-interval regularity
() over 24 h and elevated TSH pulse number ( of Weibull
process) after the waveform change point. Because the CV of
interpulse-interval lengths (stochastic variability) is determined by
independently of probabilistic mean event frequency (see Methods),
these data indicate that the reciprocal property, regularity, of the TSH
pulse-renewal process is stable nycthemerally.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTMETHODOLOGYRESULTSDISCUSSIONDISCLOSURESREFERENCES |
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The precise hypothalamo-pituitary mechanisms that orchestrate recurrent burstlike secretion of TSH in the day and night are unknown. Hypothalamic signals that impact thyrotropes include, nonexclusively, TRH (agonistic) and somatostatin and dopamine (antagonistic) (1, 5, 16, 19, 24, 26, 39). Which, if any, of the foregoing effectors expressly determines the number and variability of discrete TSH secretory events is not established. In addition, the degree to which systemic feedback by triiodothyronine, thyroxine, and/or cortisol modulates the timing of discrete TSH secretory bursts is not clear. The present data indicate that, whatever the fundamental TSH pulse-generating process, relevant mechanisms accelerate TSH secretory-burst frequency at night without detectably altering intrinsic regularity of the stochastic pulse-renewal process.
Analytical reconstruction of TSH secretory-burst waveform (normalized rate of secretion over time) predicted significant abbreviation of the latency to maximal secretion at nighttime (Fig. 8). This novel adaptation could reflect nocturnally enhanced accumulation of readily releasable (exocytotically available) TSH stores, heightened thyrotrope sensitivity to agonistic inputs, and/or attenuated thyrotrope responsivity to antagonistic signals (1, 2, 14, 16, 19, 24-26, 37, 39, 40). For example, independent observations suggest that the hypothalamic outflow of somatostatin and dopamine may decrease over the nighttime interval, which decline may facilitate the sleep-related and late-day augmentation of GH and prolactin secretion, respectively (4, 22).
From a statistical vantage, a succession of discrete neurohormone secretory episodes can be viewed as random about a probabilistic mean waiting time (reciprocal of frequency) (7, 8). The dispersion of interevent delays measures the variability of the stochastic pulse-renewal process, here represented statistically by a Weibull distribution model. The latter formulation allows one to discriminate potentially separate biological control of burst frequency and interpulse regularity. For example, recent application of the Weibull analytical model unmasked paradoxically increased regularity of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)/LH pulse regeneration in aging men and postmenopausal women compared with young counterparts (6, 11). Greater interpulse waiting-time regularity in the older male and female occurred in the face of elevated and unchanged daily LH pulse frequency, respectively. The precise neuroadaptive bases for physiological dissociation of stochastic interpulse-interval variability and pulse frequency in the thyrotropic and gonadotropic axes will be important to explore further.
Viewed mathematically, a stochastic pulse-renewal process denotes independently and identically distributed random, positive incremental waiting times. As one approach to validating this assumption in the case of TSH pulse regeneration, we applied the model-free and scale-invariant approximate entropy (ApEn) statistic. ApEn quantifies the order-dependent subpattern consistency (degree of process randomness) in numerical series (17, 35, 36). In a pulse-renewal process, the relative reproducibility of event recurrence times is definable by ApEn analysis of the observed sequence of successive interpulse-interval lengths. This application to TSH interburst waiting-time series revealed that the mean normalized ratio of ApEn of the original ordered series to ApEn of 1,000 randomly shuffled versions of the same series does not differ significantly from unity (not shown). The latter outcome is consistent with a presumptive stochastic pulse-renewal mechanism. ApEn analysis of sequential interburst-interval lengths in ACTH and LH time series has also predicted random pulse-timing properties in these systems (3, 7, 11, 33).
Perspectives
The precise nycthemeral determinants of secretory-burst mass, frequency, and waveform are not established. Depending on the neuroendocrine axis, relevant diurnally varying internal inputs could include central neural-, activity/rest-, and sleep/wake-related signals, whereas extrinsic factors often include fasting, food intake, external temperature, and light exposure. The present general analytical formulation should facilitate dissection of relevant underlying mechanisms mediating neuroendocrine adaptations. Further insights should be gained by extending statistical estimation procedures to include feedback and feedforward dose-responsive interface properties that control secretory-burst evolution, as foreshadowed in recent single-waveform analyses of the gonadotropic and corticotropic axes (7, 12).
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DISCLOSURES |
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TOPABSTRACTMETHODOLOGYRESULTSDISCUSSIONDISCLOSURESREFERENCES |
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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FOOTNOTES |
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The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
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TOPABSTRACTMETHODOLOGYRESULTSDISCUSSIONDISCLOSURESREFERENCES |
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, day; 
, night.