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ENVIRONMENTAL, EXERCISE AND RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY
1Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris, Paris; 2Assistance Publique, Hôpitaux de Paris, Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, Service Central d'Explorations Fonctionnelles Respiratoires, Paris; 3Université Joseph Fournier, Faculté de Médecine, Laboratoire TIMC/IMAG, Grenoble, France; 4Medical Research Division, Hamilton Medical AG, Bonaduz, Switzerland; and 5Assistance Publique, Hôpitaux de Paris, Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, Service de Pneumologie et Réanimation, Paris, France
Submitted 11 November 2006 ; accepted in final form 8 January 2007
In humans, lung ventilation exhibits breath-to-breath variability and dynamics that are nonlinear, complex, sensitive to initial conditions, unpredictable in the long-term, and chaotic. Hypercapnia, as produced by the inhalation of a CO2-enriched gas mixture, stimulates ventilation. Hypocapnia, as produced by mechanical hyperventilation, depresses ventilation in animals and in humans during sleep, but it does not induce apnea in awake humans. This emphasizes the suprapontine influences on ventilatory control. How cortical and subcortical commands interfere thus depend on the prevailing CO2 levels. However, CO2 also influences the variability and complexity of ventilation. This study was designed to describe how this occurs and to test the hypothesis that CO2 chemoreceptors are important determinants of ventilatory dynamics. Spontaneous ventilatory flow was recorded in eight healthy subjects. Breath-by-breath variability was studied through the coefficient of variation of several ventilatory variables. Chaos was assessed with the noise titration method (noise limit) and characterized with numerical indexes [largest Lyapunov exponent (LLE), sensitivity to initial conditions; Kolmogorov-Sinai entropy (KSE), unpredictability; and correlation dimension (CD), irregularity]. In all subjects, under all conditions, a positive noise limit confirmed chaos. Hypercapnia reduced breathing variability, increased LLE (P = 0.0338 vs. normocapnia; P = 0.0018 vs. hypocapnia), increased KSE, and slightly reduced CD. Hypocapnia increased variability, decreased LLE and KSE, and reduced CD. These results suggest that chemoreceptors exert a strong influence on ventilatory variability and complexity. However, complexity persists in the quasi-absence of automatic drive. Ventilatory variability and complexity could be determined by the interaction between the respiratory central pattern generator and suprapontine structures.
chaos; nonlinear analysis; respiratory control; breathing variability
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